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Written by Diyar Jabar Mohammed

Diyar Jabar is a Politics and International Relations graduate from the University of Sulaimani, with a keen interest in global affairs, political theory, and the intersection of technology and international diplomacy. He has contributed to academic platforms and research centers, demonstrating a strong commitment to exploring critical global issues. Through writing and public engagement, he continues to pursue his passion for fostering informed dialogue and analysis.

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1. Introduction
1.1. Background and Context

Quantum technology is becoming one of the most important science discoveries of our time, mostly because it is having a bigger and bigger effect on peace and security around the world. Global politics and scientific growth have always had a close connection. But now, with the rise of quantum theory, we are beginning a new phase of change (Wendt, 2022). Quantum theory comes from physics and the natural sciences, but it is now being studied in fields like International Relations (IR), where it might give us new ways of looking at things.

According to Diplo, 2021 experts in international relations (IR) think that the world is moving toward a “quantized” order, in which countries could be split into those that can use quantum technology and those that can’t. This class could make racing around the world even tougher. These changes are expected to have an effect on diplomacy, which is an important way for countries to talk to each other. For instance, quantum cryptography, which is already more advanced than regular encryption, could change how safe international messages are sent (Diplo, 2021).

Also, advances in quantum technology and AI are changing the plans of major powers, especially when it comes to how they handle cyberattacks. These technologies aren’t just great pieces of technology; they’re also starting to change the way people around the world think about politics and strategy (Smith, 2020). According to Smith in 2020, Countries are now racing to be the best at quantum computing instead of just fighting over armed power. The US, China, and the EU are all putting more money into quantum science, which shows that things are changing. As Singh in 2025 referred to, China’s Zuchongzhi-3 quantum supercomputer, which is said to be many times more powerful than Google’s modern systems, is a striking example of this trend. (Singh, 2025) This shows that China wants to become a world star not only in science, but also in digital security and political power. These events show that quantum technology isn’t just a science subject anymore; it’s an important part of current foreign politics as well.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

The field of International Relations still doesn’t fully understand how quantum technology will affect defense and diplomacy, even though it is growing quickly. There hasn’t been enough study on how global powers like the US and China use these tools strategically. Most of the research has been on the technical side of quantum computing.

Communication and information gathering can be done more safely with quantum systems. This could change how countries deal with each other in both calm and conflictual situations. Still, not enough study has been done on how these tools might change international relationships, negotiation tactics, and the security of the world as a whole. The study’s main goal is to find out how quantum advances are changing defense and diplomacy, as well as what that means for the future of international politics.

1.3. Research Question and Goals

• What are some new developments in quantum technology that could affect safety and how countries get along with each other?

• The main goal of this study is to find out how quantum theory is used in international relations. Specifically, it will be looked at in terms of how it impacts online arguments and fights. These are the goals:

• Find out how ideas from quantum physics are changing the way people stay safe, especially when it comes to the rules and decisions that everyone has to make.

As part of this, researchers are checking to see if quantum models, such as quantum probability and decision theory, can teach us new things about how states choose what to do.

1. Learn how quantum technologies can be used to change the way cyberwarfare is done. Quantum cryptography is used to protect emails from other countries. Find out how it could change the way people talk about peace in the world.
2. Learn about how quantum computers and quantum encryption can change cyber security and the way that states can attack. 3. Find out how changes in quantum physics are throwing off the world’s balance of power and making states fight with each other.

1.4. Significance of the Study

This research holds critical importance for the field of International Relations by:

Informing policymakers on the strategic implications of quantum technologies, particularly in securing communications and redefining cyber warfare strategies.

Examining and understanding the importance of quantum technology in which it is one of the leading technological advancements that have integrated itself into the international sphere and the crucial impact it does alongside Artificial Intelligence (AI) and how it affects Diplomacy and Cybersecurity of the States.

2. Literature Review
2.1. Introduction to Literature Review

The advancements of technology in the recent handful decades, it has been a matter of fact that these advancements and rapid growth of the technology and internet not only changed the social life of society and individuals in it, but at the same time it changed the whole game of international community and particularly in terms of relations between states on the international level. Thus, cybersecurity as a field of technology and its impactful relation to international and nation security has been a tool for defense and attack. All along with Quantum advancements. Particularly Cybersecurity has been developing as coming from a low political matter to climb the ladder and becoming a crucial implementation in terms of high politics Frank L Smith (2020). Many studies have focused on cybersecurity and their respective power and this can be analyzed with constructivists point of view, since technology is an emerging power in terms of power accumulation by states and other agents, additionally there are three types of owners of cybersecurity power in terms of national and international level, which are States, agents or companies, and NGOs.

There are key players of cybersecurity on an important level and indeed states have much cyber power in comparison to other agents but this still makes them to be one of the three acters as mentioned before. In the new age of cybersecurity, there have been two impactful and influential cyber-attacks in the history, which were Stuxnet Worm and Estonian Cyber-attacks 2007. Both of the attacks are having a background of both symbolic ideas and practical capabilities in shaping the global and regional power dynamics which can be analyzed from the perspective of constructivists. As it has been mentioned by Al-Saud: “the world’s arms race of this century will be about computer codes and not about fire arms (Al-Saud, 2012)”. These advancements also pave the way for innovations like e-governance, where secure and efficient communication infrastructures are critical (Chaubey, 2020). Quantum Diplomacy is an emerging interdisciplinary field that spans multiple domains, encompassing not only politics but also the latest advancements in science and technology (Smith J. Doe , 2015), particularly those that contribute to its development. According to Prof. Dr. Vasiliu- Feltes, Quantum Diplomacy is a pivotal area of study and practice, enabling diplomats to create policies that regulate the ethical use of quantum cryptography for secure diplomatic communications. It also fosters collaboration between states, with the United Nations playing a crucial role in implementing laws and procedures to address this emerging field (Vasiliu- Feltes, 2023).

While many works already do good job, there is still big missing part in research about philosophy and moral ideas of quantum technology in international security. Many researchers talk a lot about technical side, like quantum computing or cryptography, but not so much focus on how countries actually learn about this technology in their diplomacy or security plans. We don’t really know much how world rules or political talks change the way quantum is using or how it get control. Many old researches just focus on strong part of quantum tech, like what it can do. But this study want to be different — it try to see how countries speak about it, how they think and how they use quantum things in big world groups and safety systems. In order to understand the dynamic that is going on, theories help a lot when it comes to explaining the hidden metaphors and meanings that can not be detected in a glimpse if there is no academic bases, so does the same for quantum technology and time, that paves the way for academics to see states how they use quantum technology. further going constructivism paves the way to explain this new change to this era (Kumar, 2023).

2.2. Quantum Technology and Its Role in International Security

Because it is such a big threat to current crypto systems, quantum technology is one of the most powerful new ideas that can get around security barriers. This is really scary because a lot of states around the world depend on these security methods to keep hackers from getting to secret information. “Harvest Now, Decrypt Later” (HNDL) is an idea that shows the world is not as safe as it should be. This idea is about how quantum computers might be able to store private information now and work on decoding it when quantum processing gets better.

This leads to a big It is getting harder for states to talk to each other and keep private information safe because security methods aren’t as safe as they used to be. The world needs to work together to create and use quantum-resistant algorithms that can keep important data safe (Smith and Paoli, 2024) because this threat is getting stronger. There is a part of quantum technology that is going forward the fastest and that is quantum-enabled systems, especially quantum sensors. Soon, these devices could be used for defense. These monitors are getting better and better so fast that they might be able to do their job before big quantum computers. One way that states can keep a close eye on the sky, the land, the sea, and space is with Quantum-Enabled Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) systems. This power could totally change how the military fights. It would be harder to do secret things, but it would also be easier to gather information.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is also much better with quantum computing because it lets it look at data faster and in more complex ways (Šulović, 2010). This change makes it easy for people in charge and self-driving cars to make quick choices. RSA, DSA, and elliptic curve cryptography are all well-known encryption methods that can be broken by quantum computers using methods like Shor’s algorithm. This is the most immediate threat. Because of this risk, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has been in charge since 2012 of making post-quantum cryptography (PQC) methods that stop quantum decoding. These include Kyber and CRYSTALS-Dilithium. Since quantum technology is getting better so quickly, it is important for governments and institutions to switch to these post-quantum methods right away to protect communication systems and private data from future breaches (Krelina, 2021). Since quantum technology is quickly changing how security works around the world, it is important to use a theory structure that shows how these changes appear in security. There is a good theory called Securitization Theory that helps us figure out why people think that new tools are dangerous. The theory of securitization looks at how a problem is presented and turned from a normal worry to a major threat that needs special answers. This method helps us understand the quantum threat better because it looks at more than just threats from states. It also considers threats from non-state actors, foreign issues, and risks based on identity (Yamamoto, Sasaki, and Takesue, 2019). During the securitization process, a target object is thought to be at danger. This could be private data or state power. This makes policymakers do certain things. We can look at how states understand, rank, and deal with the new problems that quantum breakthroughs bring to both the military and the defense fields by applying securitization theory to quantum technology (Gamberini and Rubin, 2021).

2.3. Cyber Warfare and Emerging Technologies

Cyber warfare is the integration of cyberspace and traditional warfare, creating a new form of conflict that reshapes how power is understood and exercised. Warfare can no longer be interpreted solely through a conventional lens, as new methods and technologies continuously evolve. To fully grasp cyber warfare, it is essential to define cyber power, as the two concepts are inherently interconnected. According to Nye (2010), “Cyberspace is an operational domain framed by the use of electronics to exploit information via interconnected systems and their associated infrastructure.” Unlike traditional domains of power—land, sea, and air— cyberspace is man-made, rapidly evolving, and offers precise strategic advantages over conventional approaches. Cyber warfare is an extension of classical warfare, as demonstrated by real-world examples: the 2008 cyber-attacks on Georgia preceding Russia’s military invasion and Israel’s cyber operation to disable Syrian air defenses before bombing a nuclear reactor (Valeriano and Maness, 2018).

As power and technological infrastructure become increasingly intertwined, quantum computing and artificial intelligence (AI) provide a strategic advantage to states that possess these advanced capabilities. This phenomenon, known as quantum supremacy, enhances both offensive and defensive capacities in cyber warfare. race to build quantum weapons. This speeds up the process of creating safe and secure ways to send data that are not affected by quantum mechanics. Wallden and Kashefi (2019) say that this arms race shows how quickly things need to change to handle the new quantum risks in cyberwarfare.

Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) can help lower some of these risks. It is being worked on by groups like the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) to make sure that it is safe in the future. There are three main types of methods for quality control, which are One way to keep data safe is with Quantum Key Distribution (QKD). Without special keys, not even quantum computers can break this code. Quantum Random Number Generators, or QRNGs, are tools that make numbers that are truly random. This makes security better and makes the internet safer for everyone. One way that quantum fingerprinting can be used to check that data is correct is to match datasets. This is what makes sure the info is checked right.A lot of money is being put into quantum technology by states to stay ahead of the curve. The world is also changing. Also a lot of money is being spent by some of the world’s most powerful countries to improve quantum computing. China, the US, Russia, and the EU are some of these. A notable example is China’s successful demonstration of satellite-based QKD, which achieved a 7,600-kilometer intercontinental secure communication system—a milestone in quantum cyber defense. This achievement underscores how quantum capabilities are transforming global power dynamics and reinforcing the importance of securing cyberspace against emerging threats (Wallden and Kashefi, 2019).

From a constructivist approach and analysis Cyberwar is a socially construct, meaning that the perceptions and interactions between states whether cyber conflicts escalate into actual warfare. One of the key arguments is that if United States of America perceives China as a threat, cyber war could escalate into a broader conflict, because cyber war is not only about technological advances and material but on the other hand it is about how technological advancements shape the identity if each state who own the supremacy of Quantum technology and especially in cyber warfare, it changes the construct, identity and perceptions. Furthermore, cyber warfare is not only about technology itself but rather it is about competing national identities, since China is advocating a total control over the cyber space of mainland China, and United States of America often has a liberal approach towards the cyber space. And for this case according to constructivism, each state when acts upon their cyber power, they act on based on their identities and perceptions about other rival states, since every state justifies their actions and typically their cyber actions as defending their own sovereignty and national security it remains crucial for understanding the fact that they are factors which determine future cooperations and escalation (E-International Relations, n.d.). In fact, in terms of securitization cyber warfare is an asymmetrical and difficult to regulate under existing laws because it is often unidentifiable whether it is done by a state actor or a non-state actor on the other hand, Cyberattacks can cause economic devastation and political hectic situations such examples are obvious United States for instance the U.S cyber-Command (CYBERCOM) leads an offensive and defensive cyber operation to protect the national security of United States (Ünver, 2018).

2.4. Quantum implications in Diplomacy

As a historical background, one of the oldest pieces of evidence related to diplomacy was found in ancient clay libraries containing letters, diplomatic missions, and treaties. These artifacts, dating back approximately two thousand years BCE, include letters sent by the King of Ebla, a kingdom discovered in northern Syria, to King Hamzi, the ruler of a partially discovered kingdom in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. This discovery is considered one of the earliest known examples of preserved diplomatic communication. Despite speaking different languages, the protocols and technical elements used at the time were advanced and ensured secure communication between the parties (Berg, 2017).

Accordingly, Diplomacy involves levels of secrecy that must be kept secure during the negotiations and agreements, and these agreements must be kept confidential and effective, since the Vienna convention highlighted that negotiations are key functions in diplomatic missions, since during the negotiations diplomats are engaged in proposals and counterproposals (Corneliu Bjola and Kornprobst, 2018), since open negotiations leaves the state vulnerable to external threats in terms of secrecy of security, evidently keeping negotiations confidential allows diplomats to explore solutions without external interference. Furthermore, according to the Vienna Convention Article 3 as it follows: Defines the functions of diplomatic missions, including negotiations with the host government (Rangarajan, 1998). And article 27 as it follows: Ensures the inviolability of diplomatic correspondence and communications, reinforcing the principle of secrecy (Buchanan, 2016).

Before delving into the direct implications of Quantum Diplomacy, it is essential to establish a step-by-step understanding, beginning with Digital Diplomacy. Digital diplomacy refers to the transformation of diplomatic practices through the implementation of technology, enabling diplomatic ties beyond traditional, protocol-based interactions (Constantinou, Kerr and Sharp, 2016). A key aspect of digital diplomacy is its shift from a state-to-state approach to one that engages the public and interacts with the societal system itself. However, this approach has a dual nature. While digital diplomacy enhances diplomatic outreach and engagement, it also creates a competitive arena for states and non-state actors (Konovalova, 2023). This competition has significantly impacted diplomatic policies and approaches, particularly in cyber diplomacy (Radanliev, 2024), which can take either a democratic or authoritarian form. Consequently, cyber diplomacy involves two primary components: information freedom and information control. Another critical layer of cyber diplomacy is the utilization of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) (Rasmussen, 2016).

Building upon this foundation, Quantum Diplomacy, or “Q-Diplomacy,” emerges from the intersection of scientific diplomatic relations and cooperation between technologically advanced nations such as the United States and China. Quantum theory, originally a concept in physics, has been integrated into social sciences, gradually becoming a significant factor in politics and diplomacy (Pouliot and Cornut, 2015).

Why is quantum crucial for diplomacy, a field that involves practical discussions in various global settings? The answer lies in its potential to secure diplomatic environments. Quantum technology is being used as a strategic tool for international security. The United States and China are leading this effort, implementing quantum innovations in ways that reshape diplomacy (Paul Michael Brannagan and Giulianotti, 2023). China, for instance, conducted a groundbreaking scientific experiment known as the “Micius Satellite” project, which successfully demonstrated quantum communication via satellite. This experiment showcased the potential of quantum-encrypted messaging to secure diplomatic communications across continents. Meanwhile, the United States and its allies are working toward post-quantum cryptographic standards to counter quantum-enabled cyberattacks (Paul Michael Brannagan and Giulianotti, 2023). The advantage of these efforts is that they can help prevent espionage and cyber threats in diplomatic negotiations (www.cnas.org, n.d.) 2018. Quantum Diplomacy is often linked to evolving regulations due to the continuous advancements in quantum science and computational capabilities. These advancements could lead to the exploitation of various fields within the international sphere. Therefore, from a policy and governance perspective, there is an urgent need for a global framework to prevent the misuse of quantum technology in cyber warfare and espionage (Rasmussen, 2016).

Looking ahead, Quantum Diplomacy is expected to integrate Quantum Intelligence (Q- Intelligence) into decision-making processes for diplomatic relations among nations engaged in quantum programs. A useful analogy to understand quantum principles is Schrödinger’s Cat thought experiment. In this experiment, a cat inside a box is both alive and dead until it is observed, illustrating the concept of superposition—where a quantum system exists in multiple states simultaneously until measured. This concept challenges the classical notion of determinism, which assumes that things exist in definite states regardless of observation (Temur Digmelashvili, 2023). Applying the principle of superposition to social sciences, particularly diplomacy, reveals new insights. Diplomacy can be understood as existing in multiple states simultaneously. For instance, European Union policy isn’t always the same; it can be interest-based, identity-driven, military, economically driven, or ideological, depending on the point of view of the viewer. In quantum physics, the idea that light can act as both a wave and a particle depends on how it is seen is similar to this idea. This method is a new and creative way to look at politics and ties between countries. Since the beginning, diplomacy has been seen as a one-dimensional activity limited by common meanings. Believing in quantum- inspired views, on the other hand, helps us understand political tensions in a more complicated way, rather than oversimplifying them (academic.oup.com, n.d.).

2.5. Theoretical Framework

A theory framework gives us a way to look at complicated things that happen in international relations by giving us an organized way to understand diplomacy and security problems (Creswell, 2018). The theoretical background is very important for this study because it helps us understand how quantum diplomacy changes the way we think about security in general. There are two main theories in security studies that are very important to this discussion: constructivism and realism. Wendt (1992) came up with constructivism, which focuses on how ideas, identities, and rules affect international relations. This makes it a useful way to look at how new technologies affect diplomacy tactics. Realists, especially Waltz’s structural realism from 1979, see security as a result of power relations and state interests. This helps us understand the global struggle around quantum technology. This study tries to look at the relationship between technology, security, and diplomacy from both a materialist (Realist) and an ideational (Constructivist) point of view. This way, the effects of quantum diplomacy can be fully understood.

Constructivism and its application to security Studies

Although it challenges traditional ways of thinking about security by focusing on discourse, identity (Mulia, 2023), and perception as important factors in shaping security threats (Kytöneva, 2022); constructivism is the most popular way to study international relations (IR). It is especially useful for studying security because it helps us understand why states and non- state actors do and believe the things they do. A core and the main pillar of constructivists argue that security is a socially constructed phenomena rather than an objective given, in other words, how states perceive threats influence their policies (Isnarti, 2016). The idea of Securitazation explains how certain issues become framed as security threats, Cyber seucirty for example, is not just about technological risks but also how actors define and frame cyber threats, Governments and policy makers are often using security or threat narratives such as cyber war to justify security measures (Balzacq, Léonard and Ruzicka, 2016). When it coms to identity Cyber threats are unique in their nature since they hide their identity when attacking, National Identity and cyber capabilities together form an identity of a state or an organization on how they respond to an attack. From the perspective of constructivism the advancement of technology have led to the development of cyberspace, since the mergence of the concept it has regulated the narratives of understanding the cyberwar (Wendt, 1992). An important example often used is the “Anonymous” group which was one of the frist and earliest forms of internted based higher consciousness, as a matter of identity the group does not explicitly follow a set of ideology, but what they have done and known for as their idenityty, is that their actions that have been taken towards fostering freedom of expression. Anonymous demonstrated how actually they can have an impact on the global sphere and local sphere to influence the policies and politics and other ideas and idenitities, for instance in 2010 the Australian government and parliament website was under a heav attack and exploitation by the Anonymous group for the purpose of protecting freedom of speech, Eriksson and Giacomello argue that symbolic politics is crucial in understanding security in the digital age, as constructivism emphasizes the role of symbols, ideas, and their meanings.

The Internet, beyond being an information-sharing tool, has developed its own evolving identity and cultural influence (Petallides, Constantine J, 2012). Online information and user actions are shaped by this identity, requiring states and non-state actors to adapt their interactions. While the security dilemma persists, neorealism struggles to address cyber threats from non-state actors or the spread of harmful ideologies, which can be as damaging as physical attacks. The Internet has become an unparalleled force in amplifying ideas (Eriksson and Giacomello, 2014).

Realism and its application to security Studies

As a theoretical framework to understand and explain the interconnected nature and the complexities of the International Relations and State behavior, Realism offers insights and logical analysis for elaborating the analysis of understanding the main tenets of security studies and especially through the lens of realism (Sarre, 1987). Realism views the International Relations as a power struggle environments in which states seek to ensure there self interest based agenda to ensure at least they can survive in the system, since there is no higher authority to bring a stable global governance (Akdag, 2018), it does not mean that there are no system but it actually means that the international system is an anarchic system which states operate based on their interest and national security and states always prioritize their security and act on the bases of balance of power to prevent threats from rival states. In terms of security studies cyber security aligns with realism since states pursue and engage in cyber competition to protect national interests and maintain dominance (Reich et al., 2010). As a clear example the rivalry between Peoples Republic of China and United States of America cyberspace from the perspective of realism is an extension of geopolitical struggle but in a newer form (Akdag, 2018). Often states use Cyber warfare as means of protecting sovereignty and national defense, on the other hands governments justify the act of Cyber warfare as a national security measures that is in line and on the same side as realists argue for which is state survival (Kallberg, 2015), examples are manifested in United States of America and peoples Republic of China (Isnarti, 2016), just like nuclear deterrence states are opt to retaliate threats composed by the rival opponent, just like how United States balances out China through NATO alliance and these steps are leading to covert operations to maintain strategic ambiguity (Akdag, 2018).

Such implications for global security, realism predicts a continuous arms race in cyber capabilities (Thomas, 2016). Cyber threats are considered as to be one of the most crucial factors that can be vulnerable to the national security and it is heavily tied to national security. Realism offers insights into the development of the importance of the so-called competition, since the anarchic system gives a competitive nature to the system, so does the security is affected and crisis arises due to securitization process. In this process there is security dilemma, in which as long as the rival states op to increase their cyber power and dominance, the more security will be decreased in the system, because states will lack trust with each other and this will impact the degree of their deterrence to each one, furthermore each action forces a reaction as a natural rule, so does the realists believe that too, When trying to asses and approach each states power it must be said that a logical tool and explanation would be the term “Cyber Power” in other words Cyber Power is the measure of the fact that how states pursue power through their Cyber Capabilities. For instance due to the fact that entering the cyber space is relatively considered as a low cost start up point, weaker states try to balance out their power presence in the international sphere, for example North Korea was one of those states that have trained thousand of advanced hackers, or China’s Unit of 61398 that have been continuously accused of Cyber espionage and cyber tactics against the United States of America, but on the other hand, scholars believe that only superpower states can poses challenges and sophisticated hacking techniques in the cyber space, since all the power is dependent on the technological infrastructure of the state (van Haaster, 2016).

Also realism has two direct domains or approaches to understand the happenings of the international sphere, defensive and offensive realists, from the perspective of the defensive neorealists there is another theoretical approach which is the offense defense balance that offers insights on how cyberwar happens, and it explains how states response and retaliate to their rival states, in situations that are on the interest of the offensive side, the cyberwar is more likely, due to the defenders weak position. in reality, in order to commit a cyber attack or war against a rival opponent is three times less costing compared to Cyber Defense, since Cyber defense requires measurement and testing those costs more and takes more times to operate. In order to create effective cyber weapons the ingredients are only software and cyber tools to create a successful cyber attack that can only affect the oponnents hardware infrastructure to expoloit informations as much as possible. On the other hand the defender will fail the cyber warfare since the problem is to how to avoid possible attacks on a national level and all the national sectors, in others words not only public and government related parts but also for the private parts (Van Rythoven, 2019).

2.6. Gaps in the Literature and Contribution of the Study

There is also more and more writing about quantum technology, hacking, and writing. But there are still a number of constraints. To begin, most of the research that has been done so far has been on the new directions of these new technologies is that they can be used to break into systems that are already set up. While it’s a good start, it doesn’t go into great depth on how nations, especially China, make and use these weapons for political and military reasons. Scholars such as Eriksson and Giacomello (2014) and Wendt (1992) who have written about security risks have helped us understand them better. But these ideas haven’t been used very often yet in the area of quantum mechanics. This shows how big countries with different goals, like the US and China, are at odds with each other. They don’t look into enough of the moral, verbal, and identity-based issues that affect how governments act in this new IT area. Also, there isn’t enough research that combines the realist and constructivist views to fully show how quantum breakthroughs are used for communication and security. Along those lines, not a lot has been written about Quantum Diplomacy yet. Not a lot of academic research has been done to help us understand how quantum technology is changing intellectual, institutional, and global policy. Also, it’s not always clear how China’s important role in building quantum communication infrastructure like the Micius satellite fits in with bigger visions for the world and world peace. This study fills in these gaps by looking at how quantum technology, Cyberwarfare, and communication all work together in China. Putting together ideas from constructivism and realism is how this is done. It doesn’t just want to look at strategy and technology. And it wants to find out how identity, ideas, and the personalities of states change quantum rules and how nations interact with each other. Quantum changes are changing politics and safety around the world.

3. Methodology
3.1. Research Design

Interpretivist qualitative research was used to do the research for this project. Secondary sources are being used to find out how quantum technology is changing things like cyberwarfare, communication, and security. The aim is to present a thorough and expert picture of how quantum technology affects politics, discussion, and strategy around the world.

3.2. Data Sources:

For the study, policy papers, books, and literature studies will all be looked at related to the subject. One of the most important books is Earth Politics: A Manifesto from the End of IR (2020) by Burke et al. Quantum International Relations: A Human Science for World Politics is the name of the book that James Der Derian and Alexander Wendt wrote. It came out in 2022. Also papers in magazines about international studies, such as the Australian Journal of International Affairs and Millennium: Journal of International Studies. The web has things like “Quantum Cryptography Explained” by QuantumXC.

3.3. Scope of Analysis:

The study looks at how news stories, trends, and university talks show that quantum technology is used in security and foreign policy. Case studies like the ones below get more attention:

• What China does to use quantum cryptography to talk to people in other places, like the Micius satellite,

• What politicians and academics are saying about “quantum diplomacy”.

The study can find new ways that people think about strategy, security, and power that are linked to changes in quantum mechanics.

3.4. Method of Data Analysis

Qualitative content analysis is used to look at how ideas about power, identity, security, and communication are talked about in policy documents and academic papers. This Dissertation looks at the publications and interviewing scholars that are used to talk about quantum technologies as tools for security. It also looks at how constructivist and realist theories explain how quantum technology is changing the way countries negotiate with each other.

3.5. Justification for Methodology

Discussing cutting edge science, general theory, or world politics, an idea-based, in-depth study method works well. Because quantum communication is still pretty new, researchers haven’t looked into it in great depth yet. In other words, a qualitative review of the latest points and theories is a better and more adaptable way to study it than either a quantitative or an empirical one.

3.6. Primary Interview Data

On Tuesday, May 13, 2025, I spoke live with Ms. Marta Konovalova, who is an Associate Professor at Barcelona University in Spain. The point of the conversation was to make the study more in-depth. She knows a lot about how to talk to people from other countries, use new government tools, and talk to people.

A thirty-minute Zoom meeting happened. Among the topics discussed were artificial intelligence, agreements, and electrical lines all across the globe. Based on what Ms. Konovalova understood about politics in Europe and how internet businesses from all across the world are growing in significance in determining policy for the whole globe, she made some reasonable observations. Her additions helped us to better understand how artificial intelligence alters ties and nations across Europe. If this file had some professional writing from books and policy documents, it would be more valuable.

3.7. Limitations of the Methodology

Concerns have been raised about this study as it does not use any first-hand information, such as interviews or direct field research. So, real proof can’t be used as much. But using thorough and reliable study sources makes sure the analysis is complete. Also, as new tools and government plans come out, some words may change over time. This is correct because the field is always changing.

4. Discussions and Analysis

This chapter is well aligned to give a critical approach and analysis of the findings that have been discussed earlier through the theoretical framework lenses, and in particular theories for instance like Constructivism and Realism and Securitization theory as bases of analyzing the global issues that become a threat to security. The existing literature adds more crucial understanding of the revolving issues and contemporary issues that have been there, and topics such as Quantum Key Distribution, Post Quantum Technology, Diplomatic Cryptography, Cyberwarfare are a part of a bigger picture that needs to be connected and analyzed critically because these are sensitive topics that needs to taken into consideration since the use of them are shaping the humanity’s future and the upcoming generation, The main practical case of study that exists and is an excellent example of Quantum Technology is the hidden Rivalry between United States of America and Peoples Republic of China, since both of the countries are approaching new challenges especially in terms of national security.

In this chapter each section will analyze a key theme such as the securitization of quantum technology, cyber power dynamics, and China’s role in shaping the new diplomatic order. Additionally, this chapter aims to evaluate both theoretical approaches and empirical developments in the field and tries to connect them to create an understanding of the emerging trends that is useful for drawing attention to, because the existing technologies are not only shaping and transforming the reality of states but also reshapes, he normative and strategic nature and environment of the International Relations.

4.1. Quantum Technology and the securitization of Diplomacy

In the world of politics, safety is often seen as an important problem or turning point for states. That’s because security has two sides: a threat from the outside is also a threat from the inside (called “domestic”), and the other way around. The amount of securitization is the most important thing from the securitization theory point of view. When states try to guess what other states will do next, they do make things less clear. This means that how other states see things is important. Looking at countries that are making huge steps forward in technology, like the US and China, shows how the theory works in the real world. The quantum computers that China has made are much more advanced than computers and even supercomputers.

Quantum technology is becoming more and more seen as a very serious threat to international peace and peace talks between officials. From a more critical point of view, it is clear that states are using the story about quantum computing to defend sudden and strange actions. Previous writing has mostly been about how it works technically. If a problem is seen as a big threat to something important, like national authority or safe communication, it can be changed from a technical one to a security issue that needs special political and strategic action. This fits with the Securitization Theory. One of the most important things we talked about was how much power big tech companies now have when it comes to peacemaking. “They not only broadcast, but they also write stories,” she said, making it very clear. Someone needs to keep them in line, but I don’t think that’s possible at this time (Konovalova, 2021). It helped me understand that tech companies like OpenAI, Google, and others do more than just make tools. They also change the way people think about and talk about problems that affect the whole world. According to Konovalova (2025), these companies are no longer “background players” in talks. Instead, they are turning into “actors.” I thought that countries, especially those in Europe, should start to treat these companies more seriously after she said that. They should even betreated the same way as other states institutions. I’ve read in scholarly papers that political power isn’t just held by states anymore and that the world probably needs new systems to deal with all of this, especially when it comes to making decisions about AI and technology. Her point is similar to those.

It’s clear that this is true because more and more people are scared about how weak our security is. Qubit computers can use Shor’s thoughts to do more than just come up with new ideas. You can also break security rules like RSA or elliptic curve encryption. “Harvest Now, Decrypt Later” (HNDL) is a safety idea like this one. This shows that some security experts think it’s possible to read private messages again in the future, even if they are encrypted now. Every country is getting ready for something that hasn’t happened yet but could.

Quantum computing is seen by the government and institutions as both a new tool and a danger to their ability to control the flow of information. This move was planned ahead of time. Post- quantum cryptography (PQC) is being worked on by the US and China, as well as with the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Physics and politics will be better because of this.

To do this, quantum technology will need to be used to make tools for intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR). With these tools, things will get better. With these tools, states can see more clearly than ever what’s going on around them. Now there will be a difference between those who can spy and those who can be watched. People are less likely to trust others and more aware of what’s going on around them because it’s not clear where the line is between new tools and planned violence.

But it’s not just the government; a lot of other people are too. The military and the defense industry use quantum technology. It can also help with risks that don’t come from states, like cybercriminal groups or skilled hacker teams. It looks like more groups could be dangerous to countries all over the world because of this. It teaches us about states and how stories about quantum forces can change how we think the world should be run.

Seeing quantum technologies as big security risks in the end means that rules about how countries should deal with each other can be changed. Now, changes are being made so that systems that quantum computers can’t get into can still work with safe lines, secrets, and privacy. Thoughts of “securitizing” quantum creation are more than just words. In this new age of technology, rules are thought about, made, and followed in different ways.

4.2. Cyber power, Realism and National Security

Most people and more and more important people in the field of International Relations (IR) study constructivism, especially when it comes to studying security. There are many theories about security, but constructivism is different because it looks at how ideas, speech, identity, and perception affect how security risks are made and dealt with. It calls into question what most people think they know about security by saying that it is not a fact but something that is made by society. In other words, what a state thinks about a threat is often more important than what the threat is. In the constructivist framework, securitization is a key idea. This is when politicians take certain problems as very serious threats in order to make the case for harsh policy measures. As an example, cybersecurity isn’t just about how weak a system is; it’s also about how people talk about and understand risks in general. A lot of the time, governments and leaders make up big stories (like “cyberwarfare”) to justify spying on people, controlling them, or using the military. It’s also very important to be yourself. Attackers are hard to find, which breaks down normal state-based models of recognition. This makes cyber threats different. But constructivism says that how countries understand and deal with these kinds of threats relies on their political culture, history, and the way they were raised. What kind of cyber power a country has is shown by how it talks about its cyber skills. It also shows whether the country sees itself as a defender of open information or a target of information warfare.

From the point of view of constructivism, improvements in technology like quantum computing and AI have not only changed what the military can do, but they have also changed how war and peace are talked about online. The hacker group “Anonymous” is a well-known example of how non-state actors can build a strong online personality without a clear mission or set of rules. They hacked the Australian government website in 2010 to protect free speech. This shows that identity, theory, and symbolic action are now very important in the world of digital security. In 2014, Eriksson and Giacomello wrote that symbolic politics is important for understanding modern security. This is supported by their work. People say that the Internet has grown into its own culture and personality, that it’s no longer just a way to share information. People’s actions are often driven by signs and ideas in the digital world, not by what most people think about politics. The safety issue is still there, but constructivism is the best way to understand how non-state actors, ideas, and identities impact safety around the world. Neorealism has a hard time making sense of online dangers and ideological battles. But constructivism gives us more ways to understand the difficult world of quantum and cyber security we live in now.

4.3. China’s Role in Quantum Diplomacy:

Safety and communication strategies have evolved as quantum technology developed. China contributed to this shift. New technologies, myths, identities, and norms allow one nation’s transformation to another. Here’s how to consider it: This goes beyond just improving technology; it also involves transforming China and determining its digital age role in the globe. This theory holds that people’s perceptions of safety and connection create society by means of their interactions, communication, and personal development process. This may be considered as part of China’s strategy to seize the quantum world as it aims to be the global star in both politics and sciences. This covers the historic Micius Satellite launch for communication guaranteed using quantum bits. It’s not just a competition for weaponry among China and other nations. Rather, it’s about digital sovereignty and liberation from technology. Even more so, considering it in relation to the US, which lacks actual internet policing capability.

This narrative appears to match the theory that establishing guidelines for the internet is like juggling the rights to govern that speech with those to free expression. Westerners often want knowledge to be free to circulate and proliferate. China, on the other hand, wants to retain a strong hold on technology as public knowledge may compromise national security. Constructivism holds that individuals’s national identities shape their behavior on the internet and in politics. Cyberwarfare and cyberdiplomacy thereby make it more difficult to distinguish the military from the rest of the world. This makes us not sure what to do in case of a danger. China obtained Quantum Random Number Generators (QRNGs) and Quantum Key Distribution (QKD). One may see this as a scientific and symbolic approach the nation uses to demonstrate its might. China proves to be a technological star and defender of regulated internet purchase. It advances state security and secure communication to do this. Safety-wise, quantum policy enables China to present quantum technology as significant government tool. They must so go above and beyond and spend additional money. Thanks to the “Micius Satellite” initiative, people may now securely chat across 7,600km. It makes technology better and facilitates courteous communication among people. It demonstrates how visuals and science may coexist. China’s narrative, the other hand, is much different from the U.S.’s, which is about online freedom of choice and innovation. Based on constructivism, this is a choice in policy as well as a means for various governments to present their uniqueness. Eriksson and Giacomello contend that online safety and political symbols go hand in hand. China has shown this by fusing highly advanced technology with profoundly held political and cultural values.

Looking forward, Chinese people employ concepts from quantum theory to describe how their “quantum diplomacy” operates. Diplomacy may be in more than one state simultaneously before a certain individual sees or realizes it. One might base these states on interests, beliefs, or approach on strategy. China intends to dominate in new norms, strategic technologies, and global management among other areas. Most people know that it is in several various “diplomatic states” at once, which is difficult to describe. Furthermore, providing China with a fresh approach to present the world with itself and how it wishes to be seen is quantum diplomacy These days, research on quantum technologies goes beyond mere science and technology. It has become a place where individuals dispute and modify their opinions about the state’s authority and responsibility as well as future activities.

5. Conclusion

In this dissertation, I looked at how quantum technology is changing international relations. I specifically looked at how it changes hacking, negotiation, and the balance of power around the world. Three different theories were used to look at how states, especially China, are using quantum innovations in their diplomatic, political, and military plans. These theories are constructivism, realism, and securitization. The point of the study was to look into how new technologies are altering not only the balance of material power but also the identities, stories, and relationships that shape how countries act in the global system. Quantum technology is becoming more and more seen as both a tool and a threat in world politics, as this study shows. Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), post-quantum cryptography, and quantum devices are all new technologies, but they are also used in politics. These technologies are being used by countries like China to make their own better, claim digital power, and change how the rest of the world sees them. Safe quantum communication between countries was shown by China’s Micius Satellite. This is a good example of how technological progress can be used to show political power and strategic freedom.

The study used Securitization Theory to show how states use quantum innovation as a very serious threat to get policymakers to move quickly and spend a lot of money on defense infrastructure. Realism, on the other hand, gave us a way to think about the race between China and the US to make quantum weapons, which is a global issue. But constructivism allowed us to study how identities and stories affect the actions of both state and non-state actors in cyberspace in a more in-depth way. In China, your online reputation is controlled by the government. In the U.S., it’s more open and up to you. This shows how different countries’ views on security and power affect how they act internationally and what tech goals they have. Another important thing about this study is that it uses tools from quantum physics as well as old and new ideas of international relations. It’s becoming more and more common in academia to talk about how new technologies are changing not only the tools of communication but also what it means and how it’s used. It looks at technical, political, and psychological factors to do this. It is getting more and more important to know how states make and respond to changes as negotiations move from plain English to digital and quantum worlds.

There are some problems with the study, though. Some external sources and theoretical study were used, but not a lot because of lack of time or access or because state-level quantum processes are very sensitive. It would have been better if there were interviews with foreign or science workers or other real-life facts. In addition, China was the main focus of attention, with similarities to the US and the EU. The study might be even more interesting if it had more types of area views. This could be the basis for more research in the future that looks into quantum policy’s moral, economic, and social elements. For example, how could outside groups watch over how the military uses quantum devices? How might cyber defense or information warfare work in the quantum era? What rules might be made? More case studies on India, Russia, or ASEAN countries, or other rising powers or regional groups that use quantum diplomacy, could also help people all over the world learn more about this new technology. Quantum technology is not only a big step forward in science, but it is also changing the way governments work around the world. As governments deal with the unknowns of technological growth, they must also change how they relate to each other. Coming years, the world will need to be safer, more stable, and more helpful for everyone. To make this happen, we need to know how quantum innovations are made, discussed, and used.

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