Absolute gains refer to the total benefit that an actor obtains from a particular outcome, without regard to the gains or losses of other actors. In contrast, relative gains emphasize an actor’s advantage compared to others, highlighting their position in relation to other actors. Neoliberal institutionalism assumes that states primarily focus on maximizing their absolute gains; according to this perspective, cooperation is meaningful as long as it benefits the state regardless of what others gain. Conversely, neorealism (structural realism) argues that, due to the anarchic nature of the international system, states are primarily concerned with relative gains and maintaining power balances. This leads states to perceive others’ gains as their own losses, thereby complicating cooperation.

• Hurrell, A. (2013). Relative and absolute gains. In International relations and the environment (pp. 115–134). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-2790-9_7
• The Kootneeti. (2022, September 20). Relative and absolute gains in international relations. https://thekootneeti.in/2022/09/20/relative-and-absolute-gains-in-international-relations/