Transnational issues are challenges or problems that transcend national borders and require cooperation among multiple countries or actors to address effectively. These issues include, but are not limited to, climate change, terrorism, pandemics, human trafficking, organized crime, and cyber threats. Because they affect more than one state and often involve non-state actors, transnational issues demand coordinated international responses through diplomacy, policy-making, and global governance mechanisms.

• Karns, M. P., Mingst, K. A., & Stiles, K. W. (2015). International organizations: The politics and processes of global governance (3rd ed.). Lynne Rienner Publishers.