The complex problems and solutions of modern societies have always been the subject of research in history. According to Goldthrope’s statements, sociologists describe him as neo-Weberian because Goldthrope defines class position on two factors: Market situation and work situation. The market situation concept emphasizes the individual’s salary level, job security and is based on material rewards and general living standards. Work situation is based on control, power and authority in the workplace. In the 1980s-1990s, Goldthrope’s comparative research, the CASMIN project, covered social mobility and the results of this project provide an important perspective in analyzing society as it is included in the UK Office for National Statistics’ own Socio-Economic classification and is also widely used across Europe. The complexity of modern societies depends not only on their economic or military success, but also on their cultural richness, cohesion and environmental sustainability. The four basic forms of capital are important for the healthy functioning of a civilization. The four capital theories are an important tool when analyzing social inequalities and differentiation.
Economic capital directly refers to access to financial resources. It deals with the material assets and resources of society. These resources may include financial assets, infrastructure, means of production, and technology. It affects the welfare quality and living standards of a society with strong economic capital in the right proportion. However, a policy based solely on economic capital is absolutely unsustainable because its dependence on other forms of capital is ignored. Economic capital is in a clearly measurable form, such as money, so it is easy to compare between individuals, and because it can be quickly converted into resources such as education and cultural experiences, it can be easily used to accelerate social standing. Its most commonly known functions include power and control, living standards, and social status.
Cultural capital includes elements such as society’s education, knowledge, skills, tastes and cultural structures. This form of capital, usually provided from family and schools, offers the person an important status in society. Values, norms, traditions and art express the cultural richness of a society and constitute the uniqueness of its identity. At the same time, this form of capital brings the society together and strengthens the sense of unity. Cultural capital is a capital that can be produced later. Individuals can increase their cultural capital through participation in education and cultural activities.
Social capital relates to the ties and networks within a group. In short, this includes elements such as trust, solidarity and social participation. A strong social capital can increase social cohesion and the resilience of society in times of crisis. People with strong social capital in society can easily access employment, education or other important opportunities, and the unequal distribution of this social capital also creates inequality in people’s access to opportunities. Social capital largely supports economic and cultural capital through the strong bonds formed in people.
Symbolic capital includes elements such as recognition, prestige or respect in society. Examples such as being famous, working in a prestigious company, or owning a luxury car are elements of symbolic capital. Individuals or groups with symbolic capital directly legitimize their actions and ideas in proportion to their status. As their symbolic capital increases, the validity of their views and ideas increases in proportion. Having ethical values, doing charity, or being in an important position in society are also factors that increase symbolic capital.
As a result, there are application options in many areas such as the four forms of capital, education and labor market. In education systems, cultural capital is more important than economic capital. This leads to students with more cultural capital attending better schools and reaching higher levels of education. In the labor market, both economic and social capital are more important than other capitals. Individuals with more economic capital can get better jobs, while people with more social capital have an advantage in finding a job or being promoted. Yet all four types of capital work together in an intertwined manner. The best example of this is that economic capital can easily be transformed into cultural capital. The money can be used to purchase educational or cultural experiences. Likewise, cultural capital can be easily transformed into economic capital. A good and quality education allows individuals to get better jobs and earn higher salaries. Social capital can also be intertwined with remaining capitals. Individuals with strong social capital have easier access to economic and cultural capital. All four forms of capital can become more sustainable through various mechanisms. Family, school or other social institutions play an important role in transferring capital from generation to generation. Wealthy families transfer their economic capital to their children by providing them with better education and cultural experiences. Prestigious schools and institutions contribute to the future of their students by providing them with cultural and social capital. The theory of the four forms of capital is an effective tool for understanding and analyzing the position and living standards of individuals and groups in society. The four forms of capital intertwine and contribute to individuals and groups gaining access to different resources and opportunities in society. Family, school and other social institutions play an important role in the transfer of capital from one generation to the next, ensuring the maintenance of capital. Therefore, focusing on how these forms of capital can be sustained together and support each other helps societies become more robust and resilient.
- Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory and research for the sociology of education (pp. 241–258). Greenwood.
- https://www.jstor.org/stable/2780243?seq=7
- Giddens, stratification and social class, 2016.
- https://www.bps.org.uk/psychologist/simulation-based-education
- Goldthorpe, J. H. (1987). Social Mobility and Class Structure in Modern Britain. Clarendon Press.
- https://erdem.gov.tr/tam-metin/1063/tur#:~:text=Sermaye%20kuramı%20ise%20Karl%20Marx,olmak%20üzere%20dört%20sermaye%20vardır
- Roberts, K. (2020). Dealignment: Class in Britain and Class in British Sociology Since 1945. University of Liverpool.
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